Studies.2C theories and social responses Bisexuality

1 studies, theories , social responses

1.1 brain structure , chromosomes
1.2 evolutionary theory
1.3 masculinization
1.4 prenatal hormones
1.5 sex drive

studies, theories , social responses

there no consensus among scientists exact reasons individual develops heterosexual, bisexual or homosexual orientation. proposed reasons include combination of genetic factors , environmental factors (including fraternal birth order, number of older brothers boy has increases chances of homosexuality; specific prenatal hormone exposure, hormones play role in determining sexual orientation sex differentiation; , prenatal stress on mother).

the american academy of pediatrics has stated sexual orientation not determined 1 factor combination of genetic, hormonal, , environmental influences. american psychological association has stated there many reasons person s sexual orientation , reasons may different different people . further stated that, people, sexual orientation determined @ age. american psychiatric association stated: date there no replicated scientific studies supporting specific biological etiology homosexuality. similarly, no specific psychosocial or family dynamic cause homosexuality has been identified, including histories of childhood sexual abuse. research how sexual orientation may determined genetic or other prenatal factors plays role in political , social debates homosexuality, , raises fears genetic profiling , prenatal testing.

magnus hirschfeld argued adult sexual orientation can explained in terms of bisexual nature of developing fetus: believed in every embryo there 1 rudimentary neutral center attraction males , attraction females. in fetuses, center attraction opposite sex developed while center attraction same sex regressed, in fetuses became homosexual, reverse occurred. simon levay has criticized hirschfeld s theory of bisexual stage of development, calling confusing; levay maintains hirschfeld failed distinguish between saying brain sexually undifferentiated @ stage of development , saying individual experiences sexual attraction both men , women. according levay, hirschfeld believed in bisexual people strength of attraction same sex relatively low, , therefore possible restrain development in young people, hirschfeld supported.

hirschfeld created ten-point scale measure strength of sexual desire, direction of desire being represented letters (for heterosexuality), b (for homosexuality), , + b (for bisexuality). on scale, a3, b9 weakly attracted opposite sex , attracted same sex, a0, b0 asexual, , a10, b10 attracted both sexes. levay compares hirschfeld s scale developed kinsey decades later.

sigmund freud believed every human being bisexual in sense of incorporating general attributes of both sexes. in view, true anatomically , therefore psychologically, sexual attraction both sexes being aspect of psychological bisexuality. freud believed in course of sexual development masculine side of bisexual disposition become dominant in men , feminine side in women, adults still have desires derived both masculine , feminine sides of natures. freud did not claim bisexual in sense of feeling same level of sexual attraction both genders. freud s belief in innate bisexuality rejected sándor radó in 1940 and, following radó, many later psychoanalysts. radó argued there no biological bisexuality in humans. psychoanalyst edmund bergler argued in homosexuality: disease or way of life? (1956) bisexuality not exist , supposed bisexuals homosexuals.

alan p. bell, martin s. weinberg, , sue kiefer hammersmith, writing in sexual preference (1981), reported sexual preference less connected pre-adult sexual feelings among bisexuals among heterosexuals , homosexuals. based on , other findings, suggested bisexuality more influenced social , sexual learning exclusive homosexuality. letitia anne peplau et al. wrote while bell et al.′s view biological factors may more influential on homosexuality on bisexuality might seem plausible, has not been directly tested , appears conflict available evidence, such concerning prenatal hormone exposure.

human bisexuality has been studied alongside homosexuality. van wyk , geist argue problem sexuality research because few studies have observed bisexuals separately have found bisexuals different both heterosexuals , homosexuals. furthermore, bisexuality not represent halfway point between dichotomy. research indicates bisexuality influenced biological, cognitive , cultural variables in interaction, , leads different types of bisexuality.

in current debate around influences on sexual orientation, biological explanations have been questioned social scientists, particularly feminists encourage women make conscious decisions life , sexuality. difference in attitude between homosexual men , women has been reported, men more regard sexuality biological, reflecting universal male experience in culture, not complexities of lesbian world. there evidence women s sexuality may more affected cultural , contextual factors.

the critic camille paglia has promoted bisexuality ideal. harvard shakespeare professor marjorie garber made academic case bisexuality 1995 book vice versa: bisexuality , eroticism of everyday life, in argued people bisexual if not repression , other factors such lack of sexual opportunity.

brain structure , chromosomes

levay s (1991) examination @ autopsy of 18 homosexual men, 1 bisexual man, 16 presumably heterosexual men , 6 presumably heterosexual women found inah 3 nucleus of anterior hypothalamus of homosexual men smaller of heterosexual men , closer in size of heterosexual women. although grouped homosexuals, inah 3 size of 1 bisexual subject similar of heterosexual men.

some evidence supports concept of biological precursors of bisexual orientation in genetic males. according money (1988), genetic males y chromosome more bisexual, paraphilic , impulsive.

evolutionary theory

some evolutionary psychologists have argued same-sex attraction not have adaptive value because has no association potential reproductive success. instead, bisexuality can due normal variation in brain plasticity. more recently, has been suggested same-sex alliances may have helped males climb social hierarchy giving access females , reproductive opportunities. same-sex allies have helped females move safer , resource richer center of group, increased chances of raising offspring successfully.

brendan zietsch of queensland institute of medical research proposes alternative theory men exhibiting female traits become more attractive females , more mate, provided genes involved not drive them complete rejection of heterosexuality.

also, in 2008 study, authors stated there considerable evidence human sexual orientation genetically influenced, not known how homosexuality, tends lower reproductive success, maintained in population @ relatively high frequency. hypothesized while genes predisposing homosexuality reduce homosexuals reproductive success, may confer advantage in heterosexuals carry them , results suggested genes predisposing homosexuality may confer mating advantage in heterosexuals, explain evolution , maintenance of homosexuality in population.

in scientific american mind, scientist emily v. driscoll stated homosexual , bisexual behavior quite common in several species , fosters bonding: more homosexuality, more peaceful species . article stated: unlike humans, however, individual animals cannot classified gay or straight: animal engages in same-sex flirtation or partnership not shun heterosexual encounters. rather, many species seem have ingrained homosexual tendencies regular part of society. is, there no strictly gay critters, bisexual ones. animals don t sexual identity. sex.

masculinization

masculinization of women , hypermasculinization of men has been central theme in sexual orientation research. there several studies suggesting bisexuals have high degree of masculinization. latorre , wendenberg (1983) found differing personality characteristics bisexual, heterosexual , homosexual women. bisexuals found have fewer personal insecurities heterosexuals , homosexuals. finding defined bisexuals self-assured , less suffer mental instabilities. confidence of secure identity consistently translated more masculinity other subjects. study did not explore societal norms, prejudices, or feminization of homosexual males.

in research comparison, published in journal of association research in otolaryngology, women have better hearing sensitivity males, assumed researchers genetic disposition connected child bearing. homosexual , bisexual women have been found have hypersensitivity sound in comparison heterosexual women, suggesting genetic disposition not tolerate high pitched tones. while heterosexual, homosexual , bisexual men have been found exhibit similar patterns of hearing, there notable differential within sub-group of males identified hyperfeminized homosexual males exhibited test results similar heterosexual women.

prenatal hormones

the prenatal hormonal theory of sexual orientation suggests people exposed excess levels of sex hormones have masculinized brains , show increased homosexuality or bisexuality. studies providing evidence masculinization of brain have, however, not been conducted date. research on special conditions such congenital adrenal hyperplasia (cah) , exposure diethylstilbestrol (des) indicate prenatal exposure to, respectively, excess testosterone , estrogens associated female–female sex fantasies in adults. both effects associated bisexuality rather homosexuality.

there research evidence digit ratio of length of 2nd , 4th digits (index finger , ring finger) negatively related prenatal testosterone , positively estrogen. studies measuring fingers found statistically significant skew in 2d:4d ratio (long ring finger) towards homosexuality lower ratio in bisexuals. suggested exposure high prenatal testosterone , low prenatal estrogen concentrations 1 cause of homosexuality whereas exposure high testosterone levels may associated bisexuality. because testosterone in general important sexual differentiation, view offers alternative suggestion male homosexuality genetic.

the prenatal hormonal theory suggests homosexual orientation results exposure excessive testosterone causing over-masculinized brain. contradictory hypothesis homosexual preferences may due feminized brain in males. however, has been suggested homosexuality may due high prenatal levels of unbound testosterone results lack of receptors @ particular brain sites. therefore, brain feminized while other features, such 2d:4d ratio over-masculinized.

sex drive

several studies comparing bisexuals hetero- or homosexuals have indicated bisexuals have higher rates of sexual activity, fantasy or erotic interest. van wyk , geist (1984) found male , female bisexuals had more sexual fantasy heterosexuals. dixon (1985) found bisexual men had more sexual activities women did heterosexual men. bisexual men masturbated more had fewer happy marriages heterosexuals. bressler , lavender (1986) found bisexual women had more orgasms per week , described them stronger of hetero- or homosexual women. found marriages bisexual female happier heterosexual unions, observed less instance of hidden infidelity, , ended in divorce less frequently. goode , haber (1977) found bisexual women sexually mature earlier, masturbate , enjoy masturbation more , more experienced in different types of heterosexual contact.

research suggests that, women, high sex drive associated increased sexual attraction both women , men. men, however, high sex drive associated increased attraction 1 sex or other, not both, depending on sexual orientation. bisexual women, high sex drive associated increased sexual attraction both women , men; while bisexual men, high sex drive associated increased attraction 1 sex, , weakened attraction other.